Understanding mindfulness: Current epistemological, methodological, and ethical issues
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15135/2017.5.2.22-49Abstract
This paper reflects on current discussions about the meeting of Buddhism and Western psychology in the field of mindfulness from the perspective of Buddhist psychology (BP). The epistemology and methodology of BP and Western clinical psychology differ significantly. The first-person Buddhist and the third-person scientific approaches to understanding and evidencing mindfulness appear to be irreconcilable. However, BP and Buddhist ethics provide frameworks with which contemporary scientific research can be scrutinised. Such scrutiny can provide new perspectives on psychological and ethical shortcomings of modern Western scientific epistemology and methodology. BP is the foundation for the Western science of mindfulness. It is argued that BP could play a more important role in the training of scientists in mindfulness. By bridging Buddhist and Western psychology in the science of mindfulness, it appears to be possible to initiate critical psychological and ethical reflection of how modern Western science approaches, constructs, and conditions the world and its inhabitants. Such reflection, and consequent mindful scientific changes, could be of invaluable use in reducing the suffering of sentient beings in this world.
Literaturhinweise
Amaro, A. (2015). A holistic mindfulness. Mindfulness, 6(1), 63–73. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0382-3
Baer, R. (2015). Ethics, values, virtues, and character strengths in mindfulness-based interventions: A psychological science perspective. Mindfulness, 6(4), 956–969. doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0419-2
Bailey, E.I. (1999). Implicit religion: An introduction. London: Middlesex University Press.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Breugelmans, S. M., Chasiotis, A., & Sam, D. L. (2011). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2010). Methodology for building psychological models from scriptures: Contributions of Indian psychology to indigenous and universal psychologies. Psychology and Developing Societies, 22(1), 49–93. doi:10.1177/097133360902200103
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Srinivas, E. S. (2010). Editors' introduction. Psychology & Developing Societies, 22(1), 1–4. doi:10.1177/097133360902200101
Bodhi, B. (2011). What does mindfulness really mean? A canonical perspective. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 19–39. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564813
Bodhi. B. (Trans.). (2012). The numerical discourses of the Buddha: a translation of the Aṅguttaranikāya. Boston, MA: Wisdom.
Buswell, R. E. (1981). Tracing back the radiance: Chinul’s Korean way of Zen. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Kuroda Institute.
Cousins, L.S. (1997). Buddhism. In J. R. Hinnells (Ed.), A new handbook of living religions (pp. 369–444). Oxford: Blackwell.
Cassaniti, J. (2015). Living Buddhism: Mind, self and emotion in a Thai community. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Crockett, M. J., Kurth-Nelson, Z., Siegel, J. Z., Dayan, P., & Dolan, R. J. (2014). Harm to others outweighs harm to self in moral decision making. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(48), 17320–17325. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1408988111
Davis, J. H. (2015). Facing up to the question of ethics in mindfulness-based interventions. Mindfulness, 6(1), 46–48. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0374-3
Descartes, R. (1642/1698). Meditationes de prima philosophia, in quibus Dei existentia, & animae humanae à corpore distinctio, demonstrantur [Meditations on first philosophy, in which the existence of God, and the distinction of the human soul from the body are demonstrated] (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://data.onb.ac.at/ABO/%2BZ181754802
De Silva, P. (2014). An introduction to Buddhist psychology and counselling: Pathways of mindfulness-based therapies (5th ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dhammasāmi, K. (2000). Different aspects of mindfulness. Penang: Inward Path.
Dombrowski, D. A. (2014). “From nonhuman animals to the environment”. In B. Donaldson (Ed.), Beyond the bifurcation of nature: A common world for animals and the environment (pp. 8–38). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Ehara, The Rev. N. R. M., Soma, T., & Kheminda, T. (Trans.). (1961/1995). The path of freedom (Vimuttimagga) by Upatissa Thera. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Full, G. E., Walach, H., & Trautwein, M. (2013). Meditation-induced changes in perception: An interview study with expert meditators (sotapannas) in Burma. Mindfulness, 4(1), 55–63. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0173-7
Gethin, R. (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gethin, R. (2011). On some definitions of mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 263–279. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564843
Ghose, L. (2004). A study in Buddhist psychology: Is Buddhism truly pro-detachment and anti-attachment? Contemporary Buddhism, 5(2), 105–120.
Gombrich, R. F. (2009). What the Buddha thought. Sheffield: Equinox.
Greenberg, M. T., & Mitra, J. L. (2015). From mindfulness to right mindfulness: The intersection of awareness and ethics. Mindfulness, 6(1), 74–78. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0384-1
Grossman, P. (2015). Mindfulness: Awareness informed by an embodied ethic. Mindfulness, 6(1), 17–22. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0372-5
Hamilton, S. (2000). Early Buddhism: A new approach; the “I” of the beholder. London: Routlege/Curzon.
Harvey, P. (2013). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history and practice (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harvey, P. (2015). Mindfulness in Theravāda Samatha and Vipassanā meditations, and in secular mindfulness. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 115–137). Cham: Springer.
Horner, I. B. (Trans.). (1969). Milinda’s questions (Vol. I). London: Luzac.
Husserl, E. (1934–1937/1954). Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie [The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology: An introduction to phenomenological philosophy] (W. Biemel Ed.). Haag: Martinus Nijhoff.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2005). Coming to our senses: Healing ourselves and the world through mindfulness. London: Piatkus.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Some reflections on the origins of MBSR, skillful means, and the trouble with maps. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 281–306. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564844
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full catastrophe living: How to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation (rev. ed.). London: Piatkus.
Kallistos Ware. (2016). The Power of the Name. Retrieved from http://orthodoxprayer.org/Articles_files/Ware-Power%20of%20%20the%20Name.html
Kalupahana, D. J. (1987). The principles of Buddhist psychology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Kuan, T-f. (2008). Mindfulness in early Buddhism: New approaches through psychology and textual analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit sources. London: Routledge.
Kuan, T-f. (2012). Cognitive operations in Buddhist meditation: Interface with Western psychology. Contemporary Buddhism, 13(1), 35–60. doi:10.1080/14639947.2012.669281
Kudesia, R. S., & Nyima, Ven T. (2015). Mindfulness contextualized: An integration of Buddhist and neuropsychological approaches to cognition. Mindfulness, 6(4), 910–925. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0337-8
Kwee, M. G. T. (Ed.). (2010). New horizons in Buddhist psychology: Relational Buddhism for collaborative practices. Chagrin Falls, OH: Taos Institute.
Kwee, M. G. T., Gergen, K. J., & Koshikawa, F. (Eds.). (2006). Horizons in Buddhist psychology: Practice, research and theory. Chagrin Falls, OH: Taos Institute.
Levine, M. (2009). The positive psychology of Buddhism and yoga: Paths to a mature happiness, with a special application to handling anger (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Lindahl, J. R. (2015). Why right mindfulness might not be right for mindfulness. Mindfulness, 6(1), 57–62. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0380-5
Lopez, D. S. (2012). The scientific Buddha: His short and happy life. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Mathers, D., Miller, M. E., & Ando, O. (Eds.). (2009). Self and no-self: Continuing the dialogue between Buddhism and psychotherapy. London: Routledge.
Mikulas, W. L. (2015). Ethics in Buddhist training. Mindfulness, 6(1), 14–16. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0371-6
Miller, M. E., & Sivvy, M. (2014). The contributions of mindfulness practice in a secular profession: A review of Effortless mindfulness: Genuine mental health through awakened presence by Lisa Dale Miller. PsycCRITIQUES, 59(47). doi:10.1037/a0037970
Mind & Life Institute. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.mindandlife.org
Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group. (2015, October). Mindful nation UK. Retrieved from http://www.themindfulnessinitiative.org.uk/images/reports/Mindfulness-APPG-Report_Mindful-Nation-UK_Oct2015.pdf
Monteiro, L. M., Musten, R. F., & Compson, J. (2015). Traditional and contemporary mindfulness: Finding the middle path in the tangle of concerns. Mindfulness, 6(1), 1–13. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0301-7
Ñāṇamoli, B. (1992). The life of the Buddha, according to the Pali canon (3rd ed.). Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Nārada, M. T. (Ed.). (1987). A manual of Abhidhamma being Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha of Bhadanta Anuruddhācariya (5th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/abhidhamma.pdf
Nauriyal, D. K., Drummond, Michael S., & Lal, Y. B. (2006). Buddhist thought and applied psychological research: Transcending the boundaries. London: Routledge.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.nice.org.uk
O’Donnell, J. J. (Ed.). (1992). Augustine: Confessions; Liber decimus. Retrieved from http://www.stoa.org/hippo/frames10.html
Olendzki, A. (2010). Unlimiting mind: The radically experiential psychology of Buddhism. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications.
Olivelle, P. (Trans.). (1996). Upaniṣads. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Palmer, G.E.H., & Kallistos Ware. (Eds.). (2014). The Philokalia: The complete text, by St Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St Makarios of Corinth. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/Philokalia-TheCompleteText
Pickering, J. (Ed.). (1997). The authority of experience: essays on Buddhism and psychology. Richmond: Curzon.
Pickering, J. (2006). The first-person perspective in postmodern psychology. In D. K. Nauriyal, M. S. Drummond & Y. B. Lal (Eds.), Buddhist thought and applied psychological research: transcending the boundaries (pp. 3–19). London: Routledge.
Purser, R. E. (2015). Clearing the muddled path of traditional and contemporary mindfulness: A response to Monteiro, Musten, and Compson. Mindfulness, 6(1), 23–45. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0373-4
Pusey, E. B. (Trans.). (1909–1914). The confessions of St Augustine; Book X. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/augconf/aug10.htm
Rahula, W. (1974). What the Buddha taught (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Press.
Rao, K. R. (2008). Prologue: Introducing Indian psychology. In K. R. Rao, A. C. Paranjpe & A. K. Dalal (Eds.), Handbook of Indian psychology (pp. 1–18). New Delhi: Cambridge University Press India.
Rao, K. R., Paranjpe, A. C., & Dalal, A. K. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of Indian psychology. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press India.
Rhys Davids, C. A. F. (Trans.). (1900/1974). A Buddhist manual of psychological ethics: Being a translation, now made for the first time, from the original Pāli, of the first book in the Abhidhamma-piṭaka entitled Dhammasaṅgaṇi, compendium of states or phenomena (3rd ed.). London: Pali Text Society.
Rhys Davids, C. A. F. (1936). The birth of Indian psychology and its development in Buddhism. London: Luzac.
Rhys Davids, C.A.F., & Tin, P. M. (Trans.). (1920/1958). The expositor (Atthasālinī): Translation of Buddhaghosa’s commentary to the Dhammasaṅgani (2 Vols.). London: Pali Text Society/Luzac.
Rhys Davids, T. W. (Trans.). (1890/1925). The Questions of king Milinda. Oxford: Clarendon.
Roth, H. (2006). Contemplative studies: Prospects for a new field. Teachers’ College Record, 108(9), 1787–1815.
Ryan, C. (2015). Large-scale trial will assess effectiveness of teaching mindfulness in UK schools. Retrieved from http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/News/Media-office/Press-releases/2015/WTP059495.htm
Saddhatissa, Ven. (1971). The Buddha’s way. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
Sharf, R. H. (2015). Is mindfulness Buddhist? (and why it matters). Transcultural Psychiatry, 52(4), 470–484. doi:10.1177/1363461514557561
Shaw, S. (Trans.). (2006a). Buddhist meditation: An anthology of texts. London: Routledge.
Shaw, S. (Trans.). (2006b). The Jātakas: Birth stories of the Bodhisatta. New Delhi: Penguin Books.
Shaw, S. (2009). Introduction to Buddhist meditation. London: Routledge.
Shaw, S. (2010). And that was I: How the Buddha himself creates a path between biography and autobiography. In L. Covill, U. Roesler & S. Shaw (Eds.), Lives lived, lives imagined: Biographies in the Buddhist traditions (pp. 15–47). Somerville, MA: Wisdom in collaboration with The Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies.
Shaw, S. (Trans.). (2014). The spirit of Buddhist meditation. London: Yale University Press.
Shonin, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2015). Managers’ experiences of meditation awareness training. Mindfulness, 6(4), 899–909. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0334-y
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Teaching ethics in mindfulness-based interventions. Mindfulness, 6(6), 1491–1493. doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0429-0
Sinha, J. (1958/2008). Indian psychology: Cognition (2nd ed. Vol. I). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Sinha, J. (1961/2008). Indian psychology: Emotion and will (Vol. II). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Sinha, J. (1969/2008). Indian psychology: Epistemology of perception (Vol. III). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Soma, T. (Trans.). (1981/2003). The way of mindfulness (5th rev. ed.). Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Thanissaro, B. (Trans.). (1981/2003). Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the wheel of Dhamma in motion.
http://www.accesstoinsight.or/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.than.html
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D., & Singh, N. N. (2015). There is only one mindfulness: Why science and Buddhism need to work together. Mindfulness, 6(1), 49–56. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0379-y
Virtbauer, G. (2012). The Western reception of Buddhism as a psychological and ethical system: Developments, dialogues, and perspectives. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 15(3), 251–263. doi:10.1080/13674676.2011.569928
Virtbauer, G. (2013). Bewusstsein und Achtsamkeit in der buddhistischen Psychologie [Consciousness and mindfulness in Buddhist psychology]. In U. Anderssen-Reuster, S. Meck & P. Meibert (Eds.), Psychotherapie und buddhistisches Geistestraining: Methoden einer achtsamen Bewusstseinskultur [Psychotherapy and Buddhist mind training: Methods of a mindful culture of consciousness] (pp. 263–276). Stuttgart: Schattauer.
Virtbauer, G. (2014). Characteristics of Buddhist psychology. SFU Forschungsbulletin-SFU Research Bulletin, 2(1), 1–9. doi:10.15135/14.2.1.1-9
Virtbauer, G. (2015). Experiencing sati: A phenomenological survey of mindfulness in Pāli Buddhist psychology. In D. Eigner & J. Kremer (Eds.), Transformation of consciousness: potentials for our future (pp. 183–203). Kathmandu: Vajra Books.
Virtbauer, G. (2016a). The enlightenment test. SFU Forschungsbulletin-SFU Research Bulletin, 4(2), 60–64. doi:10.15135/2016.4.2.60-64
Virtbauer, G. (2016b). Presencing process: Embodiment and healing in the Buddhist practice of mindfulness of breathing [Special issue]. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 19(1), 68–81.
doi:10.1080/13674676.2015.1115474
Watson, G. (2008). Beyond happiness: Deepening the dialogue between Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the mind sciences. London: Karnac Books.
Wegela, K. K. (2009). The courage to be present: Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the awakening of natural wisdom. Boston, MA: Shambhala.
Williams, J. M. G., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Mindfulness: Diverse perspectives on its meaning, origins, and multiple applications at the intersection of science and dharma. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 1–18. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564811
Walach, H., Rose, N., Buttenmüller, V., Kleinknecht, N., Grossman, P., & Schmidt, S. (2009). Empirische Erfassung der Achtsamkeit – Die Konstruktion des Freiburger Fragebogens zur Achtsamkeit (FFA) und weitere Validierungsstudien [Measuring mindfulness – The construction of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) and further validation studies]. In T. Heidenreich & J. Michalak (Eds.), Achtsamkeit und Akzeptanz in der Psychotherapie: Ein Handbuch [Mindfulness and acceptance in psychotherapy: A handbook] (3rd ed., pp. 755–799). Tübingen: dgvt-Verlag.
Wallace, B. A. (2007). Contemplative science: Where Buddhism and neuroscience converge. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Whitehead, A. N. (1978). Process and reality: An essay in cosmology (D. R. Griffin & D. W. Sherburne Eds. corr. ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. (1st ed., 1929)